Types of organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Types of organizations - Essay Example Although the world and its intelligent inhabitants have progressed greatly in these years, the importance and magnitude of innovation has been a constant factor. Even in this highly compact, globalized, industrialized culture, we need a constant burst of innovation to keep the society from going back into ultimate regression. A society that does not move forward goes backward. The reason is the constant competition, which is peculiar to the capitalist world economy. Societies, which cease to innovate, lag behind than those who keep changing for the better. Thus, in totality, they regress (Knights, 2003). Familiar with the importance of innovation in modern times, it is important to emphasize the central role it plays in the organizational settings. All sorts of organizations across the world need to keep their pace with the ever-expanding world economy. With more and more people joining the competition and striving for an upward financial mobility, the instinct to bring out something new and unique than others is of paramount importance. Companies that cannot stand out from their competitors do not survive. It is not difficult to comprehend then, that recruiters look out for candidates who stand out and have an ability to offer something new, something unique than their counterparts (Argyris, 1965). Anyhow, this paper attempts to expand on impact of innovation on organizations by evaluating three different types of organizations, namely armed forces, universities and non-governmental organizations and the role, innovation or innovative individuals play in their working. Armed forces are the most crucial part of a state. Although, popular notions about army makes one think that they are the most rigid structures available with the least amount of spaces for innovation. However, opposite is true. Army operates in times of war where all forces thrive on their estimation of the enemy’s strategies and it is at this front that innovation saves the day. By stra tegizing innovatively, the armed force can escape the estimations made by the enemy and save them a defeat. An innovative captain will save his army and land by placing his army men at spots where they are least expected. University is a place where ideas are born and tested. It is, in fact, the home of all innovations. It is also a place, which keeps changing. With an influx of new sets of students every year, a university has to keep revising its policies, criteria, and strategies to cater to the changing needs of the student body. A rigid system of education will only produce students who will not be able to survive the new world that they have been blinded from. For example, imagine what will happen if a medical, school teaches an outdated method to its students which is recently deemed dangerous. Those who were apt enough to stay updated with the new technology and learn the new methods will leave behind the doctors who did not. Finally, an NGO is one place where one cannot do without innovation. The reason being, innovation resides at the very core of the ideology at which the whole NGO industry is built up. This underlying ideology is to provide innovative solutions to the problems faced by the deprived people of developing nations. The need for innovation is crucial because the people approached by the NGOs

Construction Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Construction Law - Case Study Example Partnering 1 means a relationship of open communication and close cooperation that involves both Government and Contractor personnel working together for the purpose of establishing a mutually beneficial, proactive, cooperative environment, alliances to contractual partnerships within which to achieve contract objectives and resolve issues and implementing actions as required. Partnering, as I define it, is the process of two or more entities coming together for the purpose of creating synergistic solutions to their mutual challenges. The Construction industry including both private and public sector clients, main contractors, consultants and specialists. The collective spend of the client members runs into billions of pounds and it constitutes the most influential pan-industry body in the construction industry. The building of a Partnering relationship is not straightforward and it is essential that sufficient time and resource is allocated in order to achieve the desired result. Effective relationships are the bedrock of Partnering and the Project culture needs to be one of full openness, honesty and trust in all dealings between the parties. .. The contract has been drafted as a purchase Order with separate Collaborate Construction terms. The former is only six pages long with additional appendices and is completed to fit the requirements of the particular project. In order to achieve a successful Partnering relationship all parties need to adopt a far greater degree of collaboration than would be found in conventional contracting. Partnering requires commitment throughout the business units and its suppliers and is not an easy option. Proactive attitudes and contributions will be required on Partnering from Project Initiation in order to obtain improved performance and shared benefits. The collaboration construction terms comprise some 18 pages and should not change, although some of the provisions may not apply, depending upon how the purchase Order has been completed. The contract is unique in that it can be used for the appointment of both consultants and contractors as a subcontract for appointment of sub consultants or subcontractors. There are already a growing body of evidence that lawyers are providing a different role from that of traditional 'legal technicians' and 'dispute adviser' in favour of movements towards 'assisting the delivery of successful projects'. Lawyers can genuinely 'add value' by explaining how a collaborative relationship can work within a supportive contraction framework. One simple step forward is for lawyers to at least explain the proposed form of construction contract (be it a partnering contract or otherwise) to the project team who will work under or in conjection with it. It is assumed that all parties fully understand what their legal obligations are and how their contract is indented to fit in with

ICT Knowledge Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

ICT Knowledge Management - Essay Example Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has introduced such technologies which really help managers and employees in the management of relevant knowledge. Companies cannot install ICT technologies properly on their own. Therefore, they hire ICT specialists for the installation of any specific ICT technology. Smith (2011) states, â€Å"An information and communications technology (ICT) specialist designs, maintains, and services systems used to store, retrieve, and send data†. Let us now discuss the role which ICT can play in knowledge management. In the report, we will consider one of the most effective ICT technologies which helps companies determine what information should be collected and converted into knowledge. The ICT technology, which will be discussed in the paper, will be Management and Information System (MIS). We will also discuss the role of ICT in different industries. 2. Role of the ICT Technology ICT plays a considerable role in knowledge management. Man agement Information System is an example of ICT which helps employees in the management of information that is required to run different business activities. Martin (2010) asserts, â€Å"Management Information Systems, which are often abbreviated to MIS are a subdivision of internal business controls that usually refer to documents, IT, people and procedures†. ... illon (2010) states, â€Å"The chief principle of management information system is to make sure that the flow of correct information is facilitated to the right people or parties in an organization†. The key tasks of an efficient Management Information System include management of business related information, documentation of the collected information, and assisting the management in processing the information. â€Å"The processing of data into information and communicating the resulting information to the user are the very essence of an MIS† (Lucey 2005, p. 4). Management Information System presents the data to the concerned department in the form of a well-documented report consisting of those activities that are needed to be executed by the management of any specific department. The main purpose of using ICT technologies in an organization is to develop and manage such tools which help managers, decision makers, and other employees of an organization in the processi ng of information related to different sets of tasks and business operations. ICT is considered an integral part of any organization because it controls all activities regarding businesses of any organization by providing the right information to the right person at right place and at the right time. ICT not only helps companies collect relevant information, rather it is also used to process, analyze, and disseminate the collected information in order to carry out key business processes of an organization. Abel (2008) found that MIS deals with the planning, management, and use of effective information technology tools to help people manage relevant knowledge. Without the use of effective Management Information System, the employees can never properly access or use the information that is required to run

Men, Friendship and Companionship in Moby Dick by Herman Melville Essay

Men, Friendship and Companionship in Moby Dick by Herman Melville - Essay Example It is difficult to sympathize with a man who is so engrossed in his own ego and is so taken by its irrational impulses. Moby Dick is the story of the mammoth ego of a relatively much smaller man! Its ending does not invoke tragedy, but only a sense of sheer futility of all ego-ridden endeavor undertaken by men. Ego and friendship are antitheses. We cannot imagine an Adolf Hitler having a bosom friend nor can we think of Ahab relaxing in the company of his near and dear ones. Such people are lone souls, which is not necessarily bad in itself, but often they happen to be lost souls too: they are not only cut off from their fellow human beings, they are also cut off from the vast natural world that sustains our existence. The ego as such, whether big or small, is a statement of our separation with the natural world. It is very useful, in the sense that it forms the basis on which we have built the great modern civilization and conquered nature, at least to a significant extent. Polynesians and other natives do not have much of an individuated ego, they live in exquisite harmony with nature and in harmony with each other; however, they do not have a civilization. Because the ego is needed for that: a crystallized sense of self against the world. Ego thrives on this opposition. But when this eg o gets totally caught up in the web of its own conceit and deceit, it is then that the road leads to perdition. We do need to assert ourselves, but not to the extent of positing ourselves at the very center of the world. Friendship and love happen only when we succeed in putting the others before ourselves, to whatever extent possible. But if we become all important to ourselves, then only death can release us from the big lie that we have become prisoners to. Friendship, love, and this feeling of oneness between ourselves and the greater whole - this is the truth. Ego is merely an illusion, albeit a very necessary one. We need to learn to lose our ego sometimes. At other times, we need to learn to use our ego, but still not be used and consumed by its megalomaniacal tendencies. Friendship is a beautiful experience, one of the most precious that is possible in human life. All that it needs is for us to put the weight of our egos aside and try to relate to the people and the world we see around ourselves in a more meaningful and deeper way - which is exactly the kind of thing that is impossible for colossal egos like Captain Ahab. Through all its rich narrative and storytelling, the one thing that Moby Dick conveys to us in the end is the meaninglessness and pointlessness of ego-obsessesed pursuits of man. But this is not to say that all ego is bad. For example, the central character of another nearly contemporary nineteenth-century epic, which too incidentally is set in the ocean and involves a giant sea-creature - Captain Nemo of Twenty Thousand Leagues is as gigantic an ego as is Captain Ahab. But there is a crucial distinction. Captain Nemo's ego is bent upon relentless construction, whereas Captain Ahab's ego is bent upon mindless destruction. Though both of them meet their deaths equally ingloriously at the sea, Nemo stands as a fallen hero, an inspiration

Measurement and Assessment in Teaching Essay Example for Free

Measurement and Assessment in Teaching Essay Once cargo has been packaged it must undergo standard checks at the inspection offices for goods entering or living the country through various shipping methods. The most acceptable measurement and inspection methods for the cargo are the sampling method. This method is preferred because it cares for both the quality of the products and total inspection cost. The method is generally timely, cost effective. The international standards of inspecting cargo universally agree on the use of sampling method to reduce the cost of inspection, if it were to be done on single entities. More so, there are set standards and levels of specifications on the maximum errors allowed for a product packaging, (Hunt, 1989). There are limited levels of defects and variation for the quality of product. A package should not exceed the maximum errors allowed. If the level is exceeded then the product or cargo is rendered unworthy and can not be delivered to the owners due to the defects that compromise the quality of the product. The cargo at this point is said to have failed the inspection as per the set code of standards; ISO 2859. inspection must follow the set standards regardless of whether the client request for specific tests or not. Clients are allowed to make specific test requests at will before the inspection begins, otherwise inspection will be done as stipulated. The set standards for international inspection must be adhered to by the test auditors and inspectors. Industrial standards that are legally accepted include NFK06-021/022, ANSI/ASQC Z1. 4-1993, ISO2859 (AQL Tables), DIN40. 080, ISO 14000, SA 8000, ANSI/ASQC Z1. 4/BS6001 and MIL-STD-105E/ ABC-STD 105. Each of these standards has its own specification for which industry products must have before they are packaged. The rule is that the standards must meet the social accountability and legal standards. When the commodities are found to contain any defect they may further be classified as critical, major, or minor depending on the level of contamination or the defect. Critical defect is hazardous for human consumption or it is bound to cause harm to the product’ consumer. This affects the functionality of the intended use of the product. When this kind of defect is detected it must be corrected. The product is not consumable under all circumstances and therefore it can not be shipped. It must be refined or discarded completely to avoid unsafe use of the product, (Dangerous Cargo Handling, 2008). On the other hand, major defects are those that may result in the interference of marketability of a product though not harmful in use. It may negatively affect the functionality of the product if uncorrected. Most clients may request for replacement if they are sold to these products. Minor defects entail the availability of foregone substances in the commodity such that they do not affect the functionality of the product negatively. It is expected that when this product is brought to the market it may satisfy majority needs. There are three different levels of inspection used in the international cargo inspection. They are the general inspection levels; general inspection level I, general inspection level II, general inspection level III. The most commonly used inspection level is the general inspection level II, which takes audit and quality tests on the product. There is a fourth category of inspection called the Special inspection level which is used for wider range of samples to eliminate more risks. It is used to test products that are suspected to be dangerous. General inspection level I is used for products that need less attention, it is for basic tests. General inspection level III is used for most discriminative requirements on the test samples. It uses engineering principles of testing the products’ quality. General inspection level III is time consuming and expensive though it can be used for elimination of large risk levels. 2) Interpreting the legal requirements in relation to the carriage of dangerous goods, present very different challenges for good assessment and evaluation The definition of dangerous cargo as stipulated by the international maritime law entails all substances or cargo that may harm the ship, the carriage, and other cargo that may be on board. Dangerous cargo handling required specialty and expertise to avoid hazardous events that may befall a carriage. There are examples of recent events of dangerous cargo harming the carriage. For instance, case involving major containership subject in which, â€Å"MSC Napoli† caused real destruction and pollution to the England’s South Coast. The carriage was beached on a natural beauty scene at the Coast yet on board was dangerous cargo worth million dollars. It had on board, 1700 tons hazardous cargo whose cost is over $ 100 million. All these went in to waste and caused more destruction to the environment, (Bergendorff, S. 1998). Poor containerization causes danger to many casualties. Massive explosions and fire outbursts are common with improper handling and outlawed procedures in dangerous cargo carriage. The international community has formulated laws and code of ethics regarding the international transportation system in which laws regarding handling of dangerous cargo have been clearly set out. This is aimed at minimizing or curbing poor handling and packaging of cargo at the terminals. This has in the past resulted in damages worth billions of money hence low economic growth and poor environmental conservation. The â€Å"International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code, the IMDG Code,† is a formulation of codes of safety that must be adhered to by any personnel handling dangerous cargo within the international community, UAE, (IMDG, 2007). This law is designed in accordance to the UAE international convention of 1974 in which signatories were signed for â€Å"Safety of Life At Sea, SOLAS. † UAE maritime code has the provision for the carrier to destroy or remove any dangerous cargo if it deems necessary. For instance, if the cargo owner would decline ownership incase of misfortune or if there were no proper agreements for international transmanship ethics. This cargo may be destroyed without compensation. Dangerous cargo may include explosives or highly inflammable. This is according the Article 271. In addition, dangerous cargo that has been loaded with proper consultation from the carrier, and it becomes a threat to the carriage then it can be destroyed without blame on the carrier. More over, when goods which are not necessarily dangerous are packed in the carriage and are not properly declared on the bill of lading are discovered on board, they can be jettisoned to avoid damage or fines on the cargo on board. This is further aggravated by the condition of the goods; if the goods are legally prohibited for sale or export, they must be destroyed or offloaded from the cargo transit. According to the law, the shipper is held responsible for any irregularity on goods he delivers that are reflected in the bill of lading, (Government of Alberta, 2010). In other words, the shipper is responsible for giving the correct information on shipping particulars and will be answerable for any damage on the cargo on board or the carriage itself, unless he gives a timely notice on any kind of irregularity. The law requires a shipper to ship only those goods that they have a clear consent of their level of toxicity and nature for which the carrier is defined. Third party who may fall victim of damage caused dangerous cargo, according to UEA law of 1985, Article 282 the civil Code shall hold the shipper responsible. This enables the shipper to ensure that they cross check their cargo and ensure that they transport only the required cargo. The shipper must ensure he does not ship wrongly described goods, since any damage caused to the cargo shall be charged on him. The law has environmental law clause concerning the protection for environment. This is found within the federal laws of UEA of 1999, â€Å"Protection and development of the Environment. † According to this law, omissions or acts that threaten the environment are punishable by the law, (Ziegler A. 2009). Criminal laws are also applicable in the cases where shipment of dangerous cargo causes death or injury to persons. The owner must ensure that they are authorized by the law to transact with the dangerous goods. In other words, international law regarding dangerous cargo shipment must be adhered to, if at all persons are to be free from blame in case of danger resulting from the shipment. The principle objective and learning instructional task in both dangerous cargo handling and assessment is to ensure that personnel dealing with shipment of different good have the basic knowledge and practical application towards quality of services and safety of the sea. The training involves important aspects like navigation, maritime laws, meteorology, and weather forecasting, watch-standing; handling small boats and ship-handling, deck operations and equipment, line handling and rope-work, communication for sails within the port, towing operations, dangerous cargo handling, attention to emergencies, storage of cargo, fire fighting and sea and is survival skills. The learning guide for cargo handling is well designed with the objective of meeting market requirements of loading and unloading of cargo. It is practice oriented with good features of on-site training to ensure advanced training for in service training and those who intend to join the shipment crew, (Fox, N. 1997). Another objective is to train staff on high technologies of cargo assessment and test procedures with the aim promoting safety and security in cargo handling. There are different principles of assessment that must be adhered to when assessing cargo. First is the type of cargo to be shipped, the type of container or package required and legal documentation of the carriage. Environmental conservation principled should be taken in to account when assessing the cargo and its package quality. Also safety of both the ship or carrier and the people involved as well as security of other cargo on board. Material labeling should be done conspicuously. Each type of cargo has its specification for packaging and secure material to use while handling it. Assessment is based on the general specifications found on the consignment and legislation regarding packaging and delivery of cargo from different origins and destinations. For instance, legislative requirements set for different cargo offer restriction to certain volumes and weights below which or above which the consignment should not be signed for transit. More over, the uses of packing material which can be recycled have become a requirement for certain types of cargo. If this is not done then the consignment may not be delivered to its destination. In addition, environmentally friendly material is requiring for packaging. Assessment tests shall only allow transit of well packaged commodities and pallets that meet the quality to be delivered for certain specifications. Packaging could be done on disposable or reusable packages for environmental safety purposes, (Devusy, et. al 1998). For instance, reusable packages may include load carrier which include flat wooden pallets, skeleton container pallets, liquid containers and universal small load carrier. The disposable packaging could include disposable pallets, disposable protective packaging, disposable liquid containers, disposable packing aids, and cardboards that are disposable. It is also required that the package be easy to clean if reusable, and easy to dispose if disposable. This packaging must be done in accordance to the environmental law. In conclusion, cargo pallet assessment and test procedures followed International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code has defined the safety procedures for packaging and transportation of cargo. Dangerous cargo has its set laws and regulation regarding test and assessment of quality and nature of the product. The law requires those handling the cargo to be careful with every step of packaging, assessment, documentation, shipment and delivery, (Batemen, et. al. 2007). It is required that environmental conservation is taken in to account since there are penalties associated with hazardous cargo that affects the environment upon mishandling or improper assessment and packaging procedures. There are objective for training those handling cargo of different natures and characteristics. Cargo characteristics must be defined in terms of quality and any defects found on the cargo must also be categorized to ensure corrections before repackaging. Generally, cargo handling is secured under the international law. References Bergendorff ,S. (1998). The Sky Came Down: Social Movements and Personhood in Mekeo Society. Oceania. Vol. 69 Batemen, S. , Mathai, M. Joshua Ho. (2007). Shipping patterns in the Malacca and Singapore Straits: An Assessment of the Risks to Different Types of Vessel: Contemporary Southeast Asia. Vol. 29 Dangerous Cargo requirements, cargo, handling Dangerous Goods: retrieved in 2010: http://web2. gov. mb. ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/d012e. php Dangerous Cargo Handling: retrieved in 29 October, 2008. http://adriamare. net/Training/courses/dangerous-cargo-handling/ Dangerous Cargo guidance Principally, Evergreen observes the IMDG. Retrieved on 01 July 2007: http://evergreen-marine. com/tbn1/html/DCGuidance. pdf Devusy, D. , Campton, P. , Hens, L. Nath B. (1998). Environmental Management in Practice; Volume 1: Instruments for Environmental Management -Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. Fox, N. (1997). Spoiled: The Dangerous Truth about a Food Chain Gone Haywire. U. S. Basic Books. Government of Alberta Ministry of transport: Dangerous Goods. Retrieve in 1995-2010. http://www. transportation. alberta. ca/519. htm Hunt, G. J. F. (1989) A Behavioral Approach to Instructional Design: A programmed Text. Plamerston North: Dunmore Press. Ziegler A. (2009). The Liability of the Contracting Carrier. Texas International Law Journal. Vol. 44

Impact of Frailty on Depression

Impact of Frailty on Depression Background With increasing life expectancy, diseases associated with old age have increased in growing proportion in recent decades. (1) The integration of frailty measures in clinical practice is crucial for the development of interventions against age-related conditions (in particular, disability) in older persons. Multiple instruments have been developed over the last years in order to capture this geriatric multidimensional syndrome characterized by decreased reserve and diminished resistance to stressors and render it objectively measurable. (2) Frailty is not uncommon to the medical contemporary research nowadays. Several possible definitions were given by different researchers in the past to define frailty. One and commonly used definition of physical frailty was given by Fried et al, Frailty was defined as a clinical syndrome in which three or more of the following criteria were present; unintentional weight loss (10lbs in past year), self-reported exhaustion, weakness (grip strength), slow walking speed, and low physical activity. (3) Frailty in older people was again classified into prefrail those having one or two criteria given by Fried et al, and frail elderly having three or more criteria as per Fried et al definition. Medical Syndrome like frailty, keeps older adults at increased risk of adverse health outcomes when exposed to a stressor. (4)   Stressors lead to decline across multiple physiological systems incrementally and are associated with greater depressive symptoms and disability. (5) Depression is not a normal part of ageing process (6) and is a potentially life-threatening disorder that affects hundreds of millions of people across the world. (7) Depression is commonly seen in frail older people as they may face widowhood or loss of function or independence or bereavement. Depression, if left untreated, complicates other chronic conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, stroke, etc. It may also incur health care costs and often accompanies functional impairment and disability. (6) Various systematic reviews and journal articles has demonstrated association between depression and frailty. In this review, focus has made to highlight the role of stressors that leads pathways linking depression and frailty. Prevalence of frailty, depression and their co-occurrence in older individuals Several studies have been carried out to measure the prevalence of frailty in community-dwelling older people as well as those in hospital settings. Majority of the studies have used similar criteria to measure frailty among older adults. Systematic review of frailty prevalence worldwide concluded that 10.7% of community-dwelling adults aged à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥65 years were frail and 41.6% pre-frail. (8) It was noted that prevalence figures varied substantially between studies (ranging from 4% to 59%) using different criteria to measure frailty. (6) Data from Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) in 2004 covering more than 10 European countries, showed prevalence of frailty and pre-frailty in 65+ age group as 17.0% (15.3 18.7) were frail and 42.3% (40.5 44.1) were pre-frail. (9) The prevalence of frailty in community dwelling older people ranged from 17%-31% in Brazil, 15% in Mexico, 5%-31% in China, and 21%-44% in Russia. However, prevalence of frailty was again fou nd much higher in institutionalized older patients as 32% in India and 49% in Brazil. Findings of study in outpatient clinics reported prevalence of frailty was 55-71% in Brazil and 28% in Peru. (10) Above finding suggests that older people of low- and middle-income countries were found frail in significant proportions which imply policy and health care provisions for this ageing population. Depression varies in its prevalence in different studies and settings. Prevalence of depressive symptoms was found 14% in Brazilian adults (11), 9% in United States general population (12) and 23.6% (95% CI: 20.3-27.2%) in Chinese older adults. (13) Depressive symptoms were most commonly associated with women (11) (12) (13) and single adults (i.e. divorced, unmarried or widowed) than in married older adults. (13) Prevalence of depressive illness rises further in the event of associated co-morbid condition such as cancer, diabetes, and hypertension[N1]. Median prevalence of minor depression was 14.4% and 10.4%, in medical settings and community-based setting, respectively[N2]. (14) The median global prevalence of serious depression in the elderly population is around 1% 5%. (15) (16) (17) Depressed elders show many phenotypical expressions of frailty and vice versa. Coexistence of both depression and frailty among older people has been investigated in several studies. (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) A recent systematic review examined the relationship between depression and frailty found serious depression in 4 16% of frail individuals who are aged 60 and over. (6) However, this percentage rises to 35% in older population with age 75 years or more. (6) (24) A study conducted within framework of prospective cohort study, the Netherlands Study of Depression in Older Persons (NESDO) found that the prevalence of physical frailty was significantly higher in the depressed group in comparison with non-depressed (27.2% vs 9.1%, p4) was present in as high as 46.5% of the frail subjects. Depressed patients often exhibit symptoms that interfere with their ability to function normally for longer duration which facilitates progression of frailty syndrome. (6) Therefore, in order to improve health and preventing frailty depression in elderly, it is essential for researchers and practitioners to understand the linking phenomena for further research and developing treatment options. Main pathways linking frailty and depression Several studies have identified the possible physiological pathways that link between frailty and depression in older adults. Of which, the main hypothetical pathways identified were vascular depression, chronic inflammation, Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation and accelerated cellular ageing. Vascular depression hypothesis Alexopoulos et al. (26) proposed that cerebrovascular disease may predispose, precipitate, or perpetuate some geriatric depressive syndromes. This statement was supported by another study of vascular depression based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) conducted by Krishnan KR et al. (27). Bivariate analyses and a fully adjusted logistic regression model in MRI study revealed that older age, late age at onset, and nonpsychotic subtype occurred more often in patients with vascular depression than in those with nonvascular depression. He also observed that anhedonia and functional disability were seen somewhat more often in patients with vascular depression. There are several clinical studies that examined vascular disease in depression. Some studies (28) found a highly significant increase in physical illness and vascular risk factors in the late onset group, after adjusting for age when they compared early and late onset late-life depression. (29) On the other hand, several others found no association of depression with cerebrovascular score (30) and vascular disease (31). Depression may occur as a result of vascular disease in a significant subpopulation of elderly persons. (32) Depression has a bidirectional association with vascular diseases and plausible mechanisms exist which explain how depression might increase these vascular diseases and vice versa. Thomas AJ et al summarized that coronary artery disease (CAD) and stroke are all associated with high rates of depression and depression is an independent risk factor for the subsequent development of CAD and stroke. (29) Mechanism of vascular depression can be hypothesized as reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF) in response to given stressors. Normal CBF in adult humans is about 60ml/100 grams/min and regionally, about 70ml/100g/min in gray matter and 20ml/100g/min in white matter. Between the ages of 20 to 65, normal CBF generally declines about 15-20%. It is generally accepted that when CBF reaches 30ml/100g/min, neurologic symptoms can appear and when CBF falls to 15-20ml/100g/min, electrical failure or irreversible neuronal damage can occur even within minutes. (33) Blood flow to the brain is influenced by systemic hemodynamics and cerebro-vascular auto-regulation, with cerebral arteries contracting or dilating as arterial pressure changes. These processes interact to maintain stable perfusion. (33) However, these processes are impaired in the context of vascular disease: hypertension, diabetes, and atherosclerosis lead to vascular wall hypertrophy, reduced arterial lumen diameter, reduced arterial distensibility, and endothelial cell dysfunction. This affects cerebral blood flow. Mild CBF reduction may impair cognitive and affective processes, while greater CBF reduction may cause ischemic injury. The subcortical white matter is particularly sensitive to these changes because it is supplied by terminal arterioles with limited collateral flow and so susceptible to infarction due to impaired autoregulation. Greater white matter hyperintensities (WMH) severity may be a marker of broader deficits in perfusion and autoregulation. Thus, risk factors for vascular disease can lead to subclinical cerebrovascular disease throughout the brain. Katz (2004) theorizes that cerebrovascular disease that causes prefrontal white-matter hyperintensities and vascular depression may also lead to posterior white matter hyperintensities, resulting in characteristics of frailty such as falls, slowness, and weakness. (34) He further stated that if the effects are anterior, the manifestations may include depression. However, if the effects are more posterior, the manifestations may be in the form of disturbances of gait and balance. Several other studies had compared depressed elderly with control group and demonstrated an increase in deep white matter hyperintensities (DWMH) in depression (35) (36) (37), but no or not significant association with peripheral vascular lesion (PVH) (36) (37). The cerebral WM contains fiber pathways that convey axons linking cerebral cortical areas with each other and with subcortical structures, facilitating the distributed neural circuits that subserve sensorimotor function, intellect, and emotion. The va scular depression hypothesis postulates that altered mood regulation and cognitive dysfunction in the elderly are due to subclinical cerebrovascular ischemia that disrupts frontostriatal neural circuits. (38) (39) This disruption of fronto-striatal neural circuits leads to disconnection syndrome that corresponds to the clinical and neuropsychological profile of LLD. (40) Prefrontal WMH also leads to executive dysfunction which affects planning, self-monitoring, attention, response inhibition, co-ordination of complex cognition (as in Trail making Test) and motor control. This leads to frailty. Chronic Inflammation hypothesis Aging- and disease-related processes promote proinflammatory states in older individuals. Administration of cytokines or induction of peripheral inflammation results in an inflammatory response, which in turn is correlated with fatigue, slowed reaction time, and mood reduction. Even without medical illness, depressed individuals exhibit increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines and reduced anti-inflammatory cytokine levels. Proinflammatory cytokines affect monoamine neurotransmitter pathways, including indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase upregulation and kynurenine pathway activation. This results in decreased tryptophan and serotonin and increased synthesis of detrimental tryptophan catabolites that promote hippocampal damage and apoptosis. Cytokines, including IL-1ÃŽÂ ², also reduce extracellular serotonin levels by activating the serotonin transporter. Effects of the CNS inflammatory cascade on neural plasticity Microglias are primary recipients of peripheral inflammatory signals that reach the brain. Activated microglia, in turn, initiate an inflammatory cascade whereby release of relevant cytokines, chemokines, inflammatory mediators, and reactive nitrogen and oxygen species (RNS and ROS, respectively) induces mutual activation of astroglia, thereby amplifying inflammatory signals within the CNS. Cytokines, including IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha, as well as IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma (from T cells), induce the enzyme, IDO, which breaks down TRP, the primary precursor of 5-HT (serotonin), into QUIN (quinolinic acid), a potent NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) agonist and stimulator of GLU (glutamate) release. Astrocytic functions are compromised due to excessive exposure to cytokines, QUIN, and RNS/ROS, ultimately leading to impaired glutamate reuptake, and increased glutamate release, as well as decreased production of neurotrophic factors. Of note, oligodendroglia are especially sensitive to the CNS inflammatory cascade and suffer damage due to overexposure to cytokines such as TNF-alpha, which has a direct toxic effect on these cells, potentially contributing to apoptosis and demyelination. The confluence of excessive astrocytic glutamate release, its inadequate reuptake by astrocytes and oligodendroglia, activation of NMDA receptors by QUIN, increased glutamate binding and activation of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors (accessible to glutamate released from glial elements and associated with inhibition of BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) expression), decline in neurotrophic support, and oxidative stress ultimately disrupt neural plasticity through excitotoxicity and apoptosis. 5-HT, serotonin; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CNS, central nervous system; GLU, glutamate; IDO, indolamine 2,3 dioxygenase; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; QUIN, quinolinic acid; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; TRP, tryptophan. Regarding LLD, the aging process disrupts immune function, increasing peripheral immune activity and shifting the CNS into a proinflammatory state. Elevated peripheral cytokine levels are associated with depressive symptoms in older adults, with the most consistent finding being for IL-6, but also implicating IL-1ÃŽÂ ², IL-8 and TNFÃŽÂ ±. Proinflammatory states in older adults are associated with cognitive deficits, including poorer executive function, poorer memory performance, worse global cognition, and steeper decline in cognition. Finally, greater IL-6 and C-reactive protein levels are associated with greater WMH burden. In LLD, ischemic lesions are also more likely to occur in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), Similarly, depressed elders exhibit increased expression of cellular adhesion molecules (CAMs) in the DLPFC. CAMs are inflammatory markers whose expression is increased by ischemia, supporting a role for ischemia in LLD and highlighting the relationship between vascular and inflammatory processes. HPA dysregulation When the HPA axis is activated by stressors, such as an immune response, high levels of glucocorticoids are released into the body and suppress immune response by inhibiting the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1, TNF alpha, and IFN gamma) and increasing the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13) in immune cells, such as monocytes and neutrophils. Excess stress also appears to play a role in the development of depression and can cause dysregulation of the HPA axis. Patients with major depression have been found to have elevated plasma and urinary cortisol levels as well as elevated corticotropin-releasing hormone and decreased levels of BDNF. Prolonged severe stress is thought to damage hippocampal neurons and to reduce the inhibitory control exerted by the HPA axis in regulating glucocorticoid levels. During an immune response, proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1) are released into peripheral circulatory system and can pass through the blood brain barrier where they can interact with the brain and activate HPA axis. Interactions between the proinflammatory cytokines and the brain can alter the metabolic activity of neurotransmitters and cause symptoms such as fatigue, depression, and mood changes. Increased levels of aldosterone in the circulation stimulate excessive production of collagen, which leads to fibrosis of tissue or organ whereas low levels of adrenal androgen dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and insulin-like growth factor 1 are associated with frailty. Further, cortisol may mimic the effects of aldosterone. Elevated serum levels of cortisol and aldosterone are independent predictors of mortality in patients with heart failure. Accelerated Cellular Aging hypothesis Accelerated cellular aging, as measured by telomere length (TL) shortening, might also be linked to depression and frailty. At both ends of every DNA strand in a human cell is a telomere.Telomeres prevent chromosomes from becoming frayed, fusing into rings, or binding with other DNA. Telomeres are specialized nucleoprotein structures located at the end of eukaryotic chromosomes. They play a critical role in controlling cell proliferation and maintenance of chromosomal stability. As part of bodys normal aging process, each time a cell divides the telomeres in your DNA get shorter. Add oxidative stress to the mix and telomeres shorten even more rapidly. Oxidative stress is the effect of destructive reactions in your bodys cells caused by too many free radicals or atoms/molecules that have unpaired electrons. In their search for an electron to make them whole, they destroy other cells. Free radicals come from environmental toxins, such as pollution, chemicals, drugs and radiation, and even naturally occur in your own body when you exercise. Antioxidants fight free radicals and stem the causes of oxidative stress. Eventually, bodys cells are unable to divide (or reproduce) and simply die. Eventually, this instability leads to tissue breakdown potentially leading to premature aging. Any stressful condition or anxiety leads to feeling of depression which in turn initiates physiologic body response that includes, increase in stress-induced glucocorticoid release and oxidative stress. Unhealthy behaviour will also stimulate inflammatory response which lead to release of cytokine and can affect telomere length.

For And Against Capital Punishment Philosophy Essay

For And Against Capital Punishment Philosophy Essay A variety of justifications for and against capital punishment has been advanced. Often the debates over these justifications become as heated as the debates over the death penalty itself. One common source of disagreement between those supporting and those opposing the death penalty is whether the death penalty really acts as a deterrent to crime. The basic idea here is that society has always lived by a system of negative reinforcement. Punish criminals, even if means applying the death penalty and potential criminals will be discouraged from crime. Although anti-death penalty crusaders often talk in terms of the Eighth Amendment and the constitutional proscription against cruel and unusual punishment that argument is often tempered by some more critical factors. Arguments for Amongst the most powerful arguments made by death penalty supporters postulates that it is a unique and effective deterrent against murder. Although killing is generally immoral, certain kinds of murders are justifiable. These include killing in self-defense and in defense of other members of the society. Those who assert this dimension of executions see the death penalty as a social exercise of value reinforcement rather than as the isolated activity of a distant legal system. Proponents of capital punishment also often claim that it deters potential murderers from crime in general and homicide in particular. In some public opinion polls, deterrence appears as the most often cited reason for supporting capital punishment. More than once on the campaign trail President Bush reiterated his support for capital punishment because it saves lives. Most people believe that criminal justice systems exist, in good part, to deter others from committing crime. Through imposing just punishment, a civilized society experiences its sense of revulsion toward those who, by violating its laws, have not only harmed individuals but also weakened the bonds that hold communities together. Some professionals laud the American death penalty for its inspiring ability to strengthen the communitys retributive and deterrent messages. They further exalt our capital justice system as a humane mechanism for expressing and strengthening community moral bonds. To them the death penalty serves as an awesome promoter of community union. Statistical evidence further proves that severe and punishment acts as a reliable deterrent to future criminal activities. For instance between the years 1995 and 2000, there were 71 executions on average every year. This led to a 44% in the rate of reported murders. Moreover, life sentences cost between $1.2 million $3.6 million dollars more compared with carrying out the death penalty. Moreover, the benefit of a justice system is fully appreciated when it addresses the problem in the most efficient financial manner. The cost of death penalty cases average $2 million in taxpayersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ money. However, this figure is significantly lower compared to the costs of housing and caring for prisoners serving life sentences. Prisoners serving life sentences spend 30-40 years in prison creating an unnecessary burden on existing resources. Therefore, the economic benefit of the death penalty also forms a strong basis for promoting its acceptance. The death penalty largely serves and upholds the best interests of society. For instance, the biggest benefit of the justice system is ridding the society of killers, rapists, and other heinous criminals. Approximately 71% of American citizens support the death penalty. It would therefore be prudent to abolish executing hardcore criminals against this popular support. Moreover, are frequent, their direct effect on murder rates and other violent crimes rate is clearly evident. It is therefore worth appreciating that criminals are essentially incapacitated through execution thereby reducing the chances of repeat offenders. Moreover, the public takes comfort in believing such prisoners are ultimately executed. Instances of prisoners serving life escaping, killing or stirring violence have further raised concern for upholding the death penalty. Continuous executions in China have significantly led to lower crime rates. Globally, China and Iran are adequately addressing crime through effe ctive application of the death penalty. Arguments against Largely, citizen myths about the death penalty appear in public opinion polls. Our nations capital supporters include within their ranks a committed, ideologically driven core of citizens and politicians. This group comprises of people whose devotion to the death penalty exists independently of changes in the legal culture, public opinion, or social science research. Some Americans in this core group support the death sentence punishment in their gut. They assert ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s supposedly retributive, deterrent, therapeutic, or economic advantages without the need for recourse to any social science confirmatory data. Some advocates express support for it even while acknowledging that it can be unfairly applied, be ineffective, or even entail the conviction and sentencing of innocent people. The support for capital punishment must therefore consider such reservations about its shortcomings. Occasionally, this pro death penalty segment of the community finds its concepts of justice well served by deep-seated, perhaps unconscious, beliefs in myths about justice that override the shortcomings of our penal system. Proponents of capital punishment tell us that an executing government acts in the best interests of the entire community. An act of execution in this perspective appears as a way to re-assert, even re-invigorate, easily overlooked basic community values, like differences between right and wrong, responsibility for ones behavior, respecting other lives and learning consequences. The criminal justice system should always reflect the moral views of the society. Consequently, inflicting the penalty of death on its citizenry entirely violates religious teachings on the sanctity of life. Nationally, prosecutors charge death in less than one in every fifty-homicide prosecutions, meaning that even before trial begins the odds in 98 percent of homicides favor a sentence less than death. At the sentencing end of the system, of the nationwide cohort of murderers actually sentenced to death, only about one in eight of this group eventually suffers execution. Thus, nearly 90 percent of convicted murderers receiving a death sentence escape execution, which means that even an imposed execution is unlikely to occur. If the death penalty is to appear certain to a potential murderer performing the premeditated cost-benefit calculus, these statistics would need to be reversed. The deterrent role of the death penalty is just not working. However, re-arranging the justice system to achieve such a reversal in these trends appears impossible given todays legal complexities. Our penal system suffers from a spiral of declining expectations of executions because of subjective prosecutorial discretion at its front end and appellate complexity at its back end. In the front end, most homicides do not qualify statutorily for a death sentence. When one does qualify, such a sentence is unlikely to be sought by the prosecution. At the back end of the system, when it is imposed it is highly unlikely to be carried out. Therefore, rather than proclaiming execution certainty, our capital liturgy today sends a message proclaiming the exact opposite. There is high improbability of the death sentence being meted out on the accused. Proportional severity deterrent and economic theories of human nature both imply, that penalties must appear severe enough to a calculating criminal to outweigh the supposed benefits of crime. Ideally, in making an economic calculation of costs and benefits in a rational manner the would-be murderer consequently revert from committing the offence. Through the realization that the pain of execution out-weighs the expected psychological pleasures from the contemplated crime, homicides would be nonexistent. The founders of modern utilitarianism adopted this calculus to suggest to legislators that they could ensure that costs outweigh the pleasures of crime by the simple expedient of increasing the degree of pain inflicted. However, the growing statistics of homicide dispute this argument that the severity of a painful punishment acts as a deterrent simply because the murderers anticipation of this brutal pain trumps any expected pleasure front the murder. Fairness in execution As U.S. jurisprudence in the twentieth century has shown, the wealthy with their phalanx of high-priced lawyers get better justice than the poor. In addition, besides the question of class, race is a huge factor. Black men in the South receive the death penalty in disproportionate numbers to whites. To make it worse, opponents cite statistics that show that black men who kill whites are executed at a higher rate than either blacks or whites who kill blacks. This racial impropriety alone should strike down the death penalty. Finally, the same crime calls for the death penalty in one place but not in others. This has consequently undermined the equal application of the death penalty. Prosecutor discretion is often put in question as to indiscriminate application as regards the death penalty. However, proponents say the death penalty is fair. The fact that the administration of the death penalty varies from place to place reflects the diversity of the nation. Moreover, every crime is unique, and every jurisdiction has the right to administer justice within the demands of its own community. Since the Supreme Court demands individual attention to each case and rejects the idea of a mandatory death penalty, the differences among jurisdictions indicate the independence of the justice system rather than compromise it. Supporters further argue that the racial statistics are false. They claim that more crimes are committed by blacks than by whites, therefore more blacks get executed. However, the fact that not everyone who deserves to be executed is executed does not make the penalty unfair. The goal therefore should be to make sure, in most cases that those folks who deserve to be executed are. Supporters of the death penalty also argue that this is a cost-effective way to deal with the most sordid elements of society. However, as opponents argue, it can cost more to execute an individual than to incarcerate him for life. Justice requires the elimination of the unfair advantage. The criminal must repay their perceived debt to society. They must not be punished in the same way as his or her offense, but the punishment must fit the crime. The death penalty is modeled on the act getting an unfair advantage over others. The criminal may obtain an unfair advantage over others by evading taxes, by killing a rival for a job, or by stealing anothers purse. However, this model of unfair advantage does not work as well with sadistic crimes that may leave the criminal psychologically worse off. The rapist may be worse off, not better off, than before his crime. The terrorist who detonates a bomb on the crowded bus he is riding does not gain any advantage over others, for he no longer exists If the death penalty deters possible murderers, the society should support some of its applications. For instance, it should apply to perpetrators who commit murder in the first degree. Alternatively, other heinous crimes such as burglary or rape also justify application of the death penalty. Argument for It is justified to punish criminals for raking unfair to discourage potential criminals from repeating such acts. Traditionally, deterrence has been given as a utilitarian rationale for punishment, in which suffering imposed on actual criminals is justified by its tendency to dissuade others from com-mining crimes, thereby reducing suffering overall. Far from being deserved by the criminal because of the evil she has done, punishment can work as deterrence even if the one punished is innocent and only publicly believed to be guilty. For the utilitarian, the relationship between guilt and punishment is a pragmatic one. We get a deterrent effect only if we punish individuals who are believed to be guilty. If individuals believed innocent were also punished, then citizens would not be able to avoid punishment by avoiding crime, and thus there would be no incentive to do so. As a practical matter, the safest way to punish people who are believed guilty is to punish those who are guilty. However, they are not punished because they deserve it rather they are punished because it is the best way to get other people to refrain front committing crimes. Conclusions Most people strongly believe that the death penalty will deter murders more effectively than long-term imprisonment. However, there are many reasons for disputing this argument it. At the basic level of psychology, reflections on peoples behavior suggest that the fear of death is less powerful a motive than one might think. Statistical studies further fail to state conclusively that executions prevent homicides. Another significant finding is that executions simply do not deter crime more than other severe punishments. Finally, one might conclude that we just do not know and cannot know whether the death penalty saves lives. However, the death penalty can be justified as analogous to defensive killing only if it can be shown that it does save lives. Since that has not been shown, one cannot appeal to this protective function as providing a moral ground for its long term adoption. Punishment must he perceived as highly or absolutely certain to follow crime. Such punishment must therefore appear roughly proportionate in view of the original crime. Moreover, it must always be applied to uphold societal principles and values. Most critically, the threat of punishment must always yield effective results of deterring crime as the actual punishment itself.